Sunlight and its renewable counterparts are abundant energy sources that may be harnessed to further sustainable production of materials. For example, photosynthetic organisms harness solar radiation to synthesize energy-rich organic molecules from water and CO2. However, numerous energy conversion bottlenecks exist in natural systems that limit the overall efficiency of photosynthesis. Specifically, most plants do not exceed 1% conversion efficiencies and microalgae grown in bioreactors do not exceed 3% conversion efficiencies. However, conversion efficiencies of 4% for plants and 5%-7% for microalgae present in bubble bioreactors may be achieved in the rapid (short term) growth phase, but not over longer periods. Additionally, although it is possible for artificial photosynthetic solar-to-fuels cycles to have higher intrinsic efficiencies, they typically terminate at hydrogen production, with no process included to complete the cycle by carbon-fixation to create materials with higher energy densities.